Everything about Black People totally explained
Black people is a term which is usually used to define a
racial group of
human beings with darker
skin color. Some definitions of the term include only people of relatively recent
Sub Saharan African descent (see
African diaspora), while others extend the term to any of the populations characterized by dark skin color, a definition that also includes certain populations in
Oceania and
Southeast Asia.
The human race
In the early twentieth century many scientists held the view that biologically distinct races existed. The races corresponded to the major continental regions of
Africa,
Europe,
Asia and
the Americas. These races were distinguished from each other based on a few visible traits such as skin color and hair texture. Black people were largely defined by their dark skin and sometimes curly hair. The belief at that time was that not only did the races differ in appearance but in behavior, intellect and origins. Some scientists such as
Carleton S. Coon believed the different races to have evolved separately over millions of years and that racial differences were thus extremely significant.
Today most scholars have abandoned these views and see race as a social construct with no biological basis. Breakthroughs in genetics and the mapping of the
human genome in the late twentieth century have helped dispel many of the earlier myths about race. At least 99.9% of any one person's
DNA is exactly the same as any other person's, regardless of ethnicity. Of the 0.1% variation, there's an 8% variation between ethnic groups within a race, such as between the
French and the
Dutch. On average, only 7% of all human genetic variation lies between major human races such as those of Africa, Asia, Europe, and
Oceania. 85% of all genetic variation lies within any local group. The proportion of genetic variation within continental groups (~93%) is therefore far greater than that between the various continental groups (~7%). Or to put it another way, "any two individuals within a particular population are about as different genetically as any two people selected from any two populations in the world"
Because of these facts, there's general agreement among biologists that human racial differences are too small to qualify races as separate
sub-species. However there's still much controversy regarding the significance of these small differences. For example, some scholars argue that even though there's more variation within populations than between them, the small between-population variation may have implications in medical science.
Single origin hypothesis
Based from genetic evidence, contemporary
world population is assumed to be descended from a relatively small population of
Homo sapiens living in Africa some 70,000 years ago—in
population bottleneck scenarios, this group may have been as small as 2,000 individuals. The differences in physical appearance between the various peoples of the world is as a result of adaptations to the different environments encountered by various populations subsequent to this split.
The African population exhibits a great degree of physical variation. Even though most sub-Saharan Africans share a skin color that's dark relative to many other peoples of the world, they do differ significantly in physical appearance. Examples include the
Dinka, some of the tallest people in the world and the
Mbuti, the shortest people in the world. Others such as the
Khoisan people have an
epicanthal fold similar to the peoples of Central Asia. A recent study found that Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest skin color diversity within population.
Dark skin
The evolution of dark skin is tied with the question of loss of body hair.
By 1.2 million years ago, all people having descendants today had exactly the receptor protein of today's Africans; their skin was dark, and the intense sun killed off the progeny with any lighter skin that resulted from mutational variation in the receptor protein. This is significantly earlier than the
speciation of
Homo sapiens from
Homo erectus some 250,000 years ago.
Dark skin helps protect against
skin cancer that develops as a result of
ultraviolet light radiation, causing mutations in the skin. Furthermore, dark skin prevents an essential B vitamin,
folate, from being destroyed. Therefore, in the absence of modern medicine and diet, a person with dark skin in the tropics would live longer, be more healthy and more likely to reproduce than a person with light skin. White Australians have some of the highest rates of skin cancer as evidence of this expectation. Conversely, as dark skin prevents sunlight from penetrating the skin it hinders the production of
vitamin D3. Hence when humans migrated to less sun-intensive regions in the north, low
vitamin D3 levels became a problem and lighter skin colors started appearing. The people of Europe, who have low levels of
melanin, naturally have an almost colorless skin pigmentation, especially when untanned. This low level of pigmentation allows the blood vessels to become visible and gives the characteristic pale pink color of white people. The difference in skin color between black and whites is however a minor genetic difference accounting for just one letter in 3.1 billion letters of DNA.
In Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa is the term used to describe African countries located south of the
Sahara. It is used as a cultural and ecological distinction from
North Africa. Because the indigenous people of this region are primarily dark skinned it's sometimes used as a
politically correct term or
euphemism for "Black Africa". Some criticize the use of the term in defining the part of Africa inhabited by black people because the Sahara cuts across countries such as
Mauritania,
Mali,
Niger,
Chad, and
Sudan, leaving some parts of them in North Africa and some in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Owen 'Alik Shahadah argues that the term sub-Saharan Africa has racist overtones:
Afrikaans or English as a
first language, as opposed to
Bantu languages such as
Zulu or
Xhosa. They also tend to have more European-sounding names than Bantu names.
In the Middle East
Black African and
Near Eastern peoples have interacted since prehistoric times. Some historians estimate that as many as 14 million black slaves crossed the
Red Sea,
Indian Ocean, and
Sahara Desert from 650 to 1900 CE.
The
Afro-Asiatic languages, which include
Semitic languages such as
Arabic and
Hebrew, are believed by some scholars to have originated in
Ethiopia. This is because the region has very diverse language groups in close geographic proximity, often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin.
In more recent times, about 1000 CE, interactions between blacks and Arabs resulted in the incorporation of several Arabic words into
Swahili, which became a useful
lingua franca for merchants. Some of this because of the slave trade; the history of
Islam and slavery shows that the
major juristic schools traditionally accepted the institution of
slavery. As a result, Arab influence spread along the east coast of Africa and to some extent into the interior (see
East Africa).
Timbuktu was a trading outpost that linked
west Africa with
Berber, Arab, and Jewish traders throughout the
Arab World. As a result of these interactions many Arab people in the
Middle East have black ancestry and many blacks on the east coast of Africa and along the Sahara have Arab ancestry.
According to Dr. Carlos Moore, resident scholar at Brazil's
Universidade do Estado da Bahia, Afro-multiracials in the Arab world self-identify in ways that resemble
Latin America. He claims that black-looking Arabs, much like black-looking
Latin Americans, consider themselves white because they've some distant white ancestry.
Moore also claims that a film about
Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had to be canceled when Sadat discovered that an
African-American had been cast to play him. In fact, the 1983 television movie
Sadat, starring
Louis Gossett, Jr., wasn't canceled. The
Egyptian government refused to let the drama air in Egypt, partially on the grounds of the casting of Gossett. The objections, however, didn't come from Sadat, who had been assassinated two years earlier.
Sadat's mother was a black
Sudanese woman and his father was a lighter-skinned
Egyptian. In response to an advertisement for an acting position he remarked, "I am not white but I'm not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish".
Fathia Nkrumah was another Egyptian intimately tied with black Africa. She was the late wife of
Ghanaian revolutionary
Kwame Nkrumah, whose marriage was seen as helping plant the seeds of cooperation between Egypt and other African countries as they struggled for independence from European colonization, which in turn helped advance the formation of the
African Union.
In general, Arab had a more positive view of black women than black men, even if the women were of slave origin. More black women were enslaved than men, and, because the
Qur'an was interpreted to permit
sexual relations between a male master and his female slave outside of marriage, many
mixed race children resulted. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab captor's child, she became “umm walad” or “mother of a child”, a status that granted her privileged rights. The child would have prospered from the wealth of the father and been given rights of inheritance. Because of
patrilineality, the children were born free and sometimes even became successors to their ruling fathers, as was the case with Sultan
Ahmad al-Mansur, (whose mother was a
Fulani concubine), who ruled
Morocco from 1578-1608. Such tolerance, however, wasn't extended to wholly black persons, even when technically "free," and the notion that to be black meant to be a slave became a common belief. The term "
abd," () "slave," remains a common term for black people in the Middle East, often though not always derogatory.
In the Americas
Approximately 12 million Africans were shipped to
the Americas during the
Atlantic slave trade from 1492 to 1888. Today their descendants number approximately 150 million. Many have a multiracial background of African, Amerindian, European and Asian ancestry. The various regions developed complex social conventions with which their multi-ethnic populations were classified.
United States
In the first 200 years that blacks had been in the
United States, they commonly referred to themselves as Africans. In Africa, people primarily identified themselves by tribe or ethnic group (closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals would be
Asante,
Yoruba,
Kikongo or
Wolof. But when Africans were brought to
the Americas they were forced to give up their tribal affiliations for fear of uprisings. The result was the Africans had to intermingle with other Africans from different tribal groups. This is significant as Africans came from a vast geographic region, the
West African coastline stretching from
Senegal to
Angola and in some cases from the south east coast such as
Mozambique. A new identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various tribal groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the
Black church and
Black English. This new identity was now based on skin color and African ancestry rather than any one tribal group.
In March of 1807,
Britain, which largely controlled the Atlantic, declared
the trans-atlantic slave trade illegal, as did the United States. (The latter prohibition took effect
January 1,
1808, the earliest date on which
Congress had the power to do so under of the
United States Constitution.)
By that time, the majority of blacks were U.S.-born, so use of the term "African" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared its continued use would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the US. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating blacks back to Africa. In 1835 black leaders called upon black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "
Negro" or "Colored American". A few institutions however elected to keep their historical names such as
African Methodist Episcopal Church. "Negro" and "colored" remained the popular terms until the late 1960s.
The term
black was used throughout but not frequently as it carried a certain stigma.
In his 1963 "
I Have a Dream" speech,
Martin Luther King, Jr. uses the terms
Negro 15 times and
black 4 times. Each time he uses
black it's in parallel construction with
white (for example, black men and white men). With the successes of the
civil rights movement a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place of
Negro,
black was promoted as standing for racial pride, militancy and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "
Black Power" by Kwame Toure (
Stokely Carmichael) and the release of James Brown's song "
Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud".
In 1988
Jesse Jackson urged Americans to use the term
African American because the term has a historical cultural base. Since then African American and black have essentially a coequal status. There is still much controversy over which term is more appropriate. Some strongly reject the term African American in preference for black citing that they've little connection with Africa. Others believe the term black is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones. Surveys show that when interacting with each other African Americans prefer the term black, as it's associated with intimacy and familiarity. The term "African American" is preferred for public and formal use. The appropriateness of this term is further confused, however, by increases in black immigrants from
Africa the Caribbean and Latin America. The more recent immigrants, may sometimes view themselves, and be viewed, as culturally distinct from native descendants of African slaves.
The
U.S. census race definitions says a black is a person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am., or Negro," or who provide written entries such as African American, Afro American,
Kenyan,
Nigerian, or
Haitian. However, the
Census Bureau notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and shouldn't be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.
A considerable portion of the
U.S. population identified as
black actually have some
Native American or
European American ancestry. For instance, genetic studies of African American people show an ancestry that's on average 17-18% European.
One drop rule
Historically the United States used a
colloquial term, the
one drop rule, to designate a black as any person with any known African ancestry. The one drop rule was virtually unique to the United States and was applied almost exclusively to blacks. Outside of the US, definitions of who is black vary from country to country but generally, multiracial people are not required by society to identify themselves as black (cf.
mulatto and related terms). The most significant consequence of the one drop rule was that many African Americans who had significant European ancestry, whose appearance was very European, would identify themselves as black.
The one drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves and been maintained as an attempt to keep the white race pure, but one of its
unintended consequences was uniting the African American community and preserving an African identity. He chose to spend his final years in Africa and immigrated to
Ghana where he died aged 95.
Booker T. Washington had a white father, and
Malcolm X and
Louis Farrakhan both had at least one white grandparent. That said,
colorism, or intraracial discrimination based on skin tone, does affect the black community. It is a sensitive issue or a taboo subject. Open discussions are often labeled as "airing dirty laundry".
Many people in the United States are rejecting the one drop rule and are questioning whether a person with one black parent should be considered black or
biracial. Although politician
Barack Obama self-identifies as black, 55 percent of whites and 61 percent of Hispanics classified him as biracial instead of black after being told that his mother is white. Blacks were less likely to acknowledge a multiracial category, with 66% labeling Obama as black. Forty-two percent of African-Americans described
Tiger Woods as black, as did 7% of white Americans.
Blackness
The concept of
blackness in the United States has been described as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream
African American culture and values. This concept isn't so much about skin color or tone but more about culture and behavior.
Spike Lee may be considered authentically black by some for his contribution to black consciousness through film.
Muhammad Ali may also be considered authentically black as a global symbol of the black identity.
Blackness can be contrasted with "
acting white" in which black individuals are said to behave more like mainstream white Americans than fellow blacks. This includes choice in fashion, the way one speaks or listening to stereotypically white music.
The notion of blackness can also be extended to non-blacks.
Toni Morrison once described
Bill Clinton as the first black president. This was because of his warm relations with African Americans, his poor upbringing and also because he's a jazz musician.
Christopher Hitchens was offended by the notion of Clinton as the first black president noting "we can still define blackness by the following symptoms: alcoholic mothers, under-the-bridge habits...the tendency to sexual predation and shameless perjury about the same" Some black activists were also offended, claiming Clinton used his knowledge of black culture to exploit blacks like no other president ever has for political gain, while not serving black interests. They note his lack of action during the
Rwanda genocide, his
welfare reform which led to the worst
child poverty since the 1960s along with the fact that number of blacks in jail increased during his administration.
The question of blackness arose in the early stages of
Barack Obama's campaign for the
2008 presidential campaign. Some have questioned whether Obama, who is commonly described as the first black candidate with a serious chance of winning the presidency, is black enough, since his mother is
white American. Obama refers to himself as black and African American using both terms interchangeably. Polls at the start of the campaign showed
Hillary Clinton to be more popular amongst black voters than Obama. On the other hand, much of Obama's support is derived from white liberals. By early 2008 however, Obama's support in the black community began surging, with polls showing him leading Clinton by 50 points among black men. Even among black women (once Clinton's most loyal constituency), polls show Obama leading Clinton by 11 points. Ultimately Obama would go on to capature about 90% of the black vote against Hillary Clinton.Illinois state senate president Emil Jones expressed anger when Bill Clinton disparaged Obama, noting that it was black people who saved Bill Clinton's presidency during impeachment. The Clintons owe the African American community, he argued, not the reverse, and suggested that perhaps to return the favour, the Clintons should support Obama.
Race in Brazil
Unlike in the United States, race in Brazil is based on skin color and physical appearance rather than ancestry. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between a pure black and a very light mulatto over a dozen racial categories would be recognized in conformity with the combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is, race referred to appearance, not heredity.
There is some disagreement among scholars over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that upward mobility and education results in reclassification of individuals into lighter skinned categories. The popular claim is that in Brazil poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree arguing that whitening of one's social status may be open to people of mixed race, but a typically black person will consistently be identified as black regardless of wealth or social status.
Statistics
| Year |
White |
Brown |
Black |
| 1835 |
24.4% |
18.2% |
51.4% |
| 2000 |
53.7% |
38.5% |
6.2% |
From the year 1500 to 1850 an estimated 3.5 million Africans were forcibly shipped to Brazil.
A philosophy of whitening emerged in Brazil in the 19th century. Until recently the government didn't keep data on race. However statisticians estimate that in 1835 half the population was black, one fifth was Pardo (brown) and one fourth white. By 2000 the black population had fallen to only 6.2% and the Pardo had increased to 40% and white to 55%. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multiracial category by intermarriage.
Race relations
Because of the ideology of miscegenation, Brazil has avoided the polarization of Society into black and white. The bitter and sometimes violent racial tensions that divide the US are notably absent in Brazil.
However the philosophy of the racial democracy in Brazil has drawn criticism from some quarters. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white. One-third of the population lives under the poverty line of which blacks and other non-whites account for 70 percent of the poor.
In the US blacks earn 75% of what whites earn, in Brazil non-whites earn less than 50% of what whites earn. Some have posited that Brazil does in fact practice the one drop rule when social economic factors are considered. This because the gap income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared with the large gap between whites and non-whites. Other factors such as illiteracy and education level show the same patterns.
Unlike in the US where African Americans were united in the civil rights struggle, in Brazil the philosophy of whitening has helped divide blacks from other non-whites and prevented a more active civil rights movement.
Though Afro-Brazilians make up half the population there are very few black politicians. The city of
Salvador, Bahia for instance is 80% Afro-Brazilian but has never had a black mayor. Critics indicate that in US cities like
Detroit and
New Orleans that have a black majority, have never had white mayors since first electing black mayors in the 1970s.
Non-white people also have limited media visibility. The Latin American media, in particular the Brazilian media, has been accused of hiding its black and indigenous population. For example the
telenovelas or
soaps are said to be a hotbed of white, largely blonde and blue/green-eyed actors who resemble
Scandinavians or other northern Europeans more than they resemble the typical whites of Brazil, who are mostly of
Southern European descent.
These patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some to advocate for the use of the Portuguese term 'negro' to encompass non-whites so as to renew a black consciousness and identity, in effect an African descent rule.
In Asia and Australasia
There are several groups of dark-skinned people who live in various parts of
Asia,
Australia and
Oceania. They include the
Indigenous Australians, the
Melanesians (now divided into
Austronesian-speaking populations and
Papuans, and including the great genetic diversity of
New Guinea), the
Andamanese people of the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands of
India, the
Semang people of the
Malay peninsula, the
Aeta people of
Luzon, the
Ati of
Panay, and various indigenous peoples sometimes collectively known as
Negritos.
By their external physical appearance (
phenotype) such people resemble Africans with dark skin and sometimes tightly coiled hair. Genetically they're distant from Africans and are more closely related to the surrounding Asian populations in the same way that Africans are more closely linked genetically to Europeans despite differences in skin colour.
The
Black War refers to a period of conflict between the
British colonists and
Tasmanian Aborigines in
Van Diemen's Land (now
Tasmania) in the early years of the 1800s.
The Australian
Aboriginal Flag was designed by
Harold Thomas, an artist and an Aboriginal, in 1971. The flag was designed to be an eye-catching rallying symbol for the Aboriginal people and a symbol of their race and identity. The black represents the Aboriginal people, the red the earth and their spiritual relationship to the land, and the yellow the sun, the giver of life.
In Europe
Age of Discovery and the
colonial empires, black people came from the colonies to the "mother country", either voluntarily (sometimes for education) or under duress (sometimes as slaves). Even prior to that, the
Arab slave trade brought large numbers of Africans to the furthest reaches of Europe; for example,
Peter the Great took as a protégé
Abram Petrovich Gannibal, whose descendants number poet
Alexandr Pushkin and
Hugh Grosvenor,
heir apparent to
Britain's wealthiest aristocrat. Most of the black people living in
Europe, however, have their origins in relatively recent waves of immigration. Since the decolonisation of the mid-twentieth century, substantial black populations have moved to certain countries in Europe; other European countries have very few black people. At present, black people have limited visibility in mainstream European society, except in a handful of roles such as sporting activities.
Britain
See also: British African-Caribbean community and Black British
According to
National Statistics, as of the 2001 census, there are over a million black people in the
United Kingdom; 1% of the total population describe themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0.8% as "Black African", and 0.2% as "Black other". The largest single number comes from
Nigeria, just over 88 000. Britain encouraged workers from the
Caribbean after
World War II; the first symbolic movement was those who came on the ship the
Empire Windrush. The preferred official
umbrella term is "black and minority ethnic" (BME), but sometimes the term "black" is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism, as in the
Southall Black Sisters, which started with a mainly
British Asian constituency. Black Britons tend to live in the cities, whereas the white population is moving more to suburbs and the countryside (see
white flight).
Eastern Europe
As African states
became independent in the 1960s, the
Soviet Union offered them the chance to study in Russia; over 40 years, 400,000 African students came, and many settled there. This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of the
Eastern bloc.
Russia
A cultural classification of people as "black" exists in
Russia. Certain groups of people who are ethnically different, and generally darker, than ethnic urbanite
Russians (since many Russians from the countryside can be dark) are pejoratively referred to as "blacks" (
chernye), and face specific sorts of
social exclusion (see
Racism in Russia).
Roma,
Georgians, and
Tatars fall into this category. Those referred to as "black" are from the
former Soviet republics, predominantly
peoples of the Caucasus, for example
Chechens. Although "Caucasian" is used in
American English to mean "
white people", in
Russian -- and
most other varieties of English -- it only refers to the
Caucasus, not European people in general.
Debates on historical populations
Race of ancient Egyptians
A controversy over the skin color and ethnic origins of the
ancient Egyptians was sparked as part of the
Afrocentric debate.
Afrocentrist scholars such as
Cheikh Anta Diop contend that
ancient Egypt was primarily a "black civilization". One source cited in support of their argument is
Herodotus, who wrote around 450 B.C. that "Colchians, Ethiopians and Egyptians have thick lips, broad nose, woolly hair and they're burnt of skin." However, Classical scholar
Frank Snowden, Jr. cautions against the reliance on accounts by ancient writers to describe the physical characteristics of other ancient peoples, as they held different connotations from those of modern-day terminology in the West. He also points out that other ancient writers clearly distinguished between Egyptians and Ethiopians.
Keita and Boyce confront this issue in a 1996 article entitled, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". As anthropologists, they point out the danger in relying on ancient interpretation to reveal for us the biological make up of a population. In any case they contend, the relevant data indicates greater similarity between Egyptians and Ethiopians than the former group with the ancient Greeks.
Ancient Egyptians are often portrayed in modern media as Caucasians, and many blacks, Afrocentrists in particular, have been critical of this. According to
Egyptologists, ancient Egypt was a multicultural society of Middle Eastern, Northeast African, and Saharan influences. Anthropological and archaeological evidence shows that an
Africoid element was evident in ancient Egypt, which was predominant in
Abydos in the
First dynasty of Egypt.
Biblical perspective
According to some historians, the tale in
Genesis 9 in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars. According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the
Deluge and giving rise to three separate races.
The biblical passage,
Book of Genesis 9:20-27, which deals with the
sons of Noah, however, makes no reference to race. The reputed
curse of Ham isn't on
Ham, but on
Canaan, one of Ham's sons. This isn't a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative. The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also isn't supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible doesn't define blacks, nor assign them to racial hierarchies. According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College:
{{quote|in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery.
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